• Reports and Studies
• Work Violence in North America
• Labor Markets in North America: Main Changes Since NAFTA
• The Rights of Nonstandard Workers: A North American Guide
• Protection of Migrant Agricultural Workers
• Labor Relations Law in North America
• "Standard" and "Advanced" Practices in the North American Garment Industry
• Income Security Programs for Workers in North America
• The Employment of Women in North America
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• Background
• Executive Summary
• Part I - The Female Labor Force and Female Employment in North America
• Part II: Female Unemployment in North America
• Part III: The Employment of Women in North America and the European Union
• Appendix A - The Legal Rights of Women Workers in North America
• Appendix B - Conceptual Aspects of the Information Used in this Study
• Appendix C - Selected Statistics of Female Employment in North America 1984-1996
• Bibliography
• North American Labor Markets. A Comparative Profile
• Plant Closings and Labor Rights
• Guide to Labor and Employment Laws
• Seminar Proceedings
• Past Events
• Briefs & Notes
• Other
• Press Releases
• Annual Reports

The Female Labor Force in North America

Women’s participation in the labor force

As shown in Graph 1, in 1996, the North American female labor force consisted of 61.9 million women in the United States (or 77 percent of the total female labor force in North America); 11.6 million in Mexico (14.5 percent of the total) and 6.8 million in Canada (8.5 percent of the total).

Graph 1 Distribution of the Female Labor Force in North America, 1996
Note:	For Canada and Mexico, the data includes female workers 15 years and older; for the United States, figures include female workers 16 years and older.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STP/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The rate of participation of women in the labor force increased substantially in all three countries. Mexico had the greatest increases, with the female participation rate rising from 27.8 percent in 1984 to 37.4 percent in 1996. In Canada, the female participation rate increased from 54.0 percent to 57.6 percent in the same period. In the United States, the female participation rate has increased more rapidly than in Canada but less rapidly than in Mexico, rising from 53.6 percent in 1984 to 59.3 in 1996. In Mexico and the United States, the rate of participation of women displayed continuous growth throughout the period, while in Canada it grew until 1993 and has since remained almost constant.(Graphs 2 and 2A)

Graph 2 Labor Force Participation Rate by Gender in North America, 1996
Note:	For Canada and Mexico, the data includes female workers 15 years and older; for the United States, figures include female workers 16 years and older.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STP/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Graph 2a Change in the Labor Force Participation Rate by Gender in North America 1984-1996
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, INEGI, Encuesta Nacional y Gastos de los Hogares 1984, and STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, 1996; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The growth of female participation rates is reflected in the greater female role in the overall labor force of the three countries. The highest growth has been reported in Mexico. Between 1984 and 1996, the Mexican female labor force increased by 84 percent, from 6.3 million to 11.6 million workers, which amounted to an increase in the female share of the total labor force from an initial 27.5 percent in 1984 to 32.8 percent by the end of this period. In Canada from 1984 to 1996, the proportion of women in the total labor force increased from 42 percent to 45.2 percent. In the same period, the share of women in the United States labor forces rose from 43.8 percent to 46.2 percent.

Women’s participation in the labor force is expected to continue to grow in North America during the next decade. In Canada, projections for the period 1996-2005 predict that the female labor force will increase at an annual rate of 1.7 percent, which would increase the female share in the total labor force from 45.2 percent in 1996 to 46.3 percent in the year 2005³. In the United States, according to projections for 1996-2006, the female labor force is expected to increase by 1.3 percent each year, increasing women’s share in the total labor force from 46.2 percent in 1996 to 47 percent in the year 2006⁴. In Mexico, the female labor force aged 12 years and more is projected to increase at annual rate of 2.8 percent during the period 1996-2005, increasing its share in the total labor force from 34.5 percent in 1996 to 38.5 percent by the end of the period⁵.

The rate of female participation in the three countries varies with age. In general terms, in all three countries the highest rates of participation occur in the 25 to 44 age group. Specifically, the highest rate occurs in the 35 to 44 age group in Canada and the United States, and in the 25 to 34 age group in Mexico. As shown in Graph 3, with the exception of people aged 65 or over, participation levels are lower for all age groups in Mexico. In Canada and the United States, the younger age groups show similar characteristics; however, higher participation rates by women aged 45 or older are seen in the United States.

Graph 3 Female Participation Rate by Age Group in North America, 1996
Note:	Labor force as a percentage of working age population for each age group.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

As shown in Graph 4, higher rates of increase in the participation of women in the labor force occurred in Canada and Mexico from the late 1970’s to 1996. During the late 1970’s the participation rates for all groups of ages for these countries were lower than those for the United States. In Canada from 1976 to 1996, the highest increases were reported for women between the ages of 25 and 54 years, while in the United States, the most noteworthy increases have occurred among women in the older end of that range, between the ages of 35 and 54. In Mexico between 1979 and 1996, female participation increased in all age groups, with the greatest growth in participation by women aged 25 to 54. Compared to the situation two decades ago, today more women participate in the labor force during their reproductive years in all three countries.

Graph 4 Change in the Female Participation Rate by Age Group in North America
Note:	Labor force as a percentage of working age population for each age group.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Factors in the participation of women in the labor force

Among the factors that have contributed to the increasing participation of women in the labor force are the improvement of educational levels among the female population, the economic need for women to contribute to family income, more part-time job opportunities for women and the reduction in the fertility rate. The latter has been a particularly important factor in Mexico, which in the last 25 years has experienced a substantial reduction in the rate of fertility. There is also an interaction among these factors; for example, the level of education influences fertility rates.

Women have improved their levels of education in all three countries. In Canada, the average period of education for women aged 15 or more increased from 10 years in 1976 to 12.2 years in 1996; in Mexico, the educational level of women aged 15 or more increased from an average of 6.2 years in 1991 to seven years in 1996; in the United States, the average years of education for women over the age of 25 increased from 12.1 years in 1970 to 12.8 years in 1995.

There is a close relationship between educational levels and female participation in the labor force in all three North American countries⁶. For example in Canada, the participation rate of women with university degrees stood at 80.3 percent in 1996, while the figure for women with eight or fewer years of education was 18 percent. In Mexico in 1996, the participation rate for women with university education was 63.1 percent and 29 percent for those with six years of education or less. The rate of participation for women with a college degree in the United States was 76 percent compared to 21.9 percent for those with less than one year of high school in 1996. Although the rate of participation for men is also linked positively to education level, the disparity is less pronounced among men. This is especially true in Mexico, where the participation rate for men with university level accounted for 84.7 percent in 1996 while the rate for men with an average of six years of education or less was 78.4 percent. For Canada, men’s participation stood at 85.1 percent for those with university degrees and 37.6 percent for those with eight or less years of education. In the United States, figures stood at 85.1 percent for men with college graduates and 46.1 percent for men with less than one year of high school. Thus education correlates more strongly with participation in the labor force among women than among men in all three countries.

The need to bolster family income has also affected the participation of women in the labor force. This situation is demonstrated by the increasing participation of married and divorced women in the labor force. As shown in Table 1, the percentage of married and divorced women in the total female labor force has risen substantially in Canada and in Mexico. Table 2 shows that the greatest increases in participation rates of women by marital status have occurred among married women. This was true in all three countries, but Canada and the United States had the greatest increases. The rate of participation of married women in the labor force rose by 18 percentage points between 1976 and 1996 in Canada and by 16 percentage points between 1976 and 1995 in the United States. In Mexico, it increased by about five percentage points between 1991 and 1996.

Table 1	Distribution of Female Labor Force by Marital Status in North America (% of total)
	Canada Mexico United States   1976 1996 1991 1996 1976 1996 Single 30.5 25.4 47.0 41.0 24.8 25.6 Married 60.6 64.2 40.5 45.1 56.8 54.4 Divorced 5.2 8.6 6.1 7.9 18.4 20.0 Widowed 3.7 1.8 6.4 6.0 - -
Notes:	For Canada, the data refer to women 15 years and older; for Mexico data refer to women 12 years and older. The figure for married women includes those couples living together but not married; divorced includes those separated from their husbands; for the United States, it refers to women 16 years and older. For the United States the data for divorced and widowed women are combined.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STP/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Table 2	Female Participation Rate by Marital Status in North America
	Canada Mexico United States   1976 1996 1991 1996 1976 1996 Total 45.6 57.6 31.5 34.8 47.3 58.9 Single 58.9 63.6 37.5 38.4 59.2 65.5 Married 43.5 61.6 25.5 30.3 45.1 61.1 Divorced 59.5 64.7 61.6 65.8 71.4 73.7 Widowed 18.9 11.4 27.1 30.7 22.3 17.5
Notes:	Figures represent the percentage of women in the labor force for each marital status. For Canada, the data refer to the population 15 years and older; for Mexico, data refer to women 12 years and older; for the United States data refer to women 16 years and older; for the United States, the data for married women refer only to those whose husbands are present.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

As a result of the increasing participation of married women in the labor force, their contribution to total family income has increased. For example, in Canada, married women’s contribution to total family income increased from 29 percent in 1989 to 31 percent in 1992⁷. In the United States, married women’s share of total family earnings increased from 32 percent in 1987 to 34.1 percent in 1995. In Mexico in 1994, women’s income accounted for 18 percent of total household income⁸.

The increasing availability of part-time jobs for women has also influenced participation rates since part-time jobs allow women additional flexibility to balance work and family obligations. (See section on part-time employment).

As regards the fertility rate, the average number of children per woman has decreased in each of the three countries, most significantly in Mexico (Table 3). In Canada, the 1970 figure of 2.3 children per woman had fallen to 1.6 by 1995; in the United States, this figure fell from 1.6 in 1970, to 1.2 children in 1994.⁹ Meanwhile, Mexico has recorded the greatest fertility rate reduction. This figure dropped from an average of 6.6 children per woman in 1970 to 3.1 children per woman in 1996.¹⁰ The decline in the fertility rate has taken place in a relatively shorter period of time and more recently in Mexico than occurred in Canada and the United States.¹¹

Table 3
Average Children per Women in North America
	Average childern per woman
Canada	2.3(1970)	1.6(1995)
Mexico	6.6(1970)	3.1(1996)
United States	1.6(1970)	1.2(1994)
Note:	For Canada, the number of average children refers to women of 15 years and older; for Mexico it refers to women older than 12 years; for the United States it refers to women between 15 and 44 years of age.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, Consejo Nacional de Población; United States, Bureau of the Census of Population, and Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The number of children and the age of children are factors that influence the rate of participation of women in the labor force. In Mexico, women with six or more children have a lower rate of participation (25.8 percent in 1996) than women with one or two children (40.4 percent). In the United States, the rate of participation of women with children of less than six years of age stood at 62.3 percent in 1996, while the rate was 77.2 percent for those with older children (between six and 17 years).¹² In the same year the figures stood at 59 percent for Canadian women with the youngest children (less than age six), while the rate of participation increased to 69.9 percent for women with children between six and 15 years of age.¹³

Female Employment in North America

As shown in Graph 5, during the period 1984 to 1996 female employment increased at a higher rate than male employment in each of the countries of North America. In Canada, female employment grew by 29.5 percent, in comparison with a 13.1 percent figure for men. In the United States, female employment increased by 27.4 percent, as compared to 15.4 percent for males. In Mexico, female employment underwent the greatest growth in North America, with an 83 percent rise, while male employment levels rose by 44.5 percent. Due to the differential growth rates, the ratio of employed men to women between 1984 and 1996 was reduced from 1.4:1 to 1.2:1 in Canada; from 2.6:1 to 2.1:1 in Mexico and from 1.3:1 to 1.2:1 in the United States.

Graph 5 Employment Growth by Gender in North America, 1984-1996
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Ingresos y Gastos de los Hogares, 1984, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo 1988, 1991, 1993, 1995 and 1996 and estimates for the intermediate years; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

The increasing participation of women in economic activities during this period had a significant influence upon overall employment growth in the three countries. In the case of Canada, 62 percent of the increase in total employment reported for the 1984 to 1996 period was attributable to the growth in female employment. During the same period, in the United States, female employment accounted for 58 percent of total employment growth; in Mexico, the figure was 42 percent.

Age distribution of female employment

The distribution of female employment by age group indicates significant differences among the countries of North America. As may be observed in Graph 6, Mexico has the youngest age structure, characterized by relatively high participation of females between the ages of 15 and 24. In 1996, 28.1 percent of Mexican female workers were within this age range, while in Canada, the share of this age group stood at 15.9 percent; the figure for the United States was 15.2 percent for female workers between the ages of 16 and 24. The United States had the highest proportion among the three countries of employed women in the highest age group (55 years and over), indicating that the age at which women retire from employment is higher in the United States. Canada had the highest proportion of the three countries in the middle age groups (25 to 44 years). The differing demographic profile of Mexico, where the population is significantly younger than in Canada and the United States, is an important factor in the age distribution of employment.

Graph 6 Distribution of Female Employment by Age Group in North America, 1996
Note:	For the United States the first group includes 16 to 24 year olds.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

In comparison with the age structure of female employment in 1984, the share of the youngest age group in total female employment has fallen in all three countries while the share for women between the ages of 25 and 54 has increased, most notably in Canada (Graph 6A). The reduction of the share of the youngest age group may be due to longer female school attendance as well as to the relative aging of the population of all three countries, while the increment experienced by the middle groups may be explained additionally by the increasing participation of married women in the labor force.

Graph 6a Changes in Women’s Employment Distribution by Age Group in North America, 1984-1996
Note:	1988-1996 for Mexico.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Female employment by class of worker

As shown in Graph 7, female employment in North America is mainly wage and salary based ("employees.") However, this characteristic is far more common in Canada and the United States, where more than 90 percent of female workers received wages or salaries in 1996. In Mexico in the same year, the proportion was 60.1 percent. In all three countries wage and salaried employment is slightly more common among women than among men. For example, in the United States, the share of female wage and salaried workers in total female employment accounted for 93 percent in 1996, while the share for males stood at 90 percent. The figures for Canada were 90 percent for women and 87.5 for men, and 60.1 percent and 58 percent, respectively, for Mexico.

Graph 7 Distribution of Female Employment by Class of Worker in North America, 1996
Note:	For Canada, the data includes workers 15 years and older; for Mexico, 12 years and older; and for the United States, 16 years and older. In Canada and the United States, the “Self-Employed” category includes only those not incorporated; the incorporated workers are included in the “Employees” category. In Mexico, Canada and the United States, the “Self-Employed” category includes employers.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

In Mexico, self-employment and unpaid family work account for a considerable proportion of total employment. In 1996, the shares of these categories in total female employment were 23 percent and 16.9 percent, respectively. In the same year, in Canada female self-employment accounted for 9.2 percent of total female employment and unpaid workers accounted for 0.7 percent. In the United States, the proportions were 6.7 percent and 0.2 percent, respectively. In Mexico, the situation is partly explained by the presence of a large number of women in the primary sector (especially farming) which is characterized by relatively high levels of unpaid family workers and self-employment. In 1996, 67 percent of female employment in the primary sector in Mexico was unpaid and 13 percent fell into the self-employment category.

It should be noted that in Canada from 1984 to 1996 and in Mexico from 1991 to 1996, female self-employment increased substantially as a share of total female employment, while the proportion of wage and salaried workers decreased. The reduction of wage and salaried workers in both countries may be associated with the lower participation of women in the manufacturing sector, where wage and salaried workers account for a large share of employment. The growth of female self-employment in Mexico is mainly a result of increasing female employment in retail trade, where self-employment is very common, especially in the informal sector. In Canada, the growth of this category is due primarily to the increase in female employment in social and personal services, which accounted for 68 percent of total female self-employment in 1996.

Distribution of female employment by sector

In North America, female workers are mainly employed in the service sector (social, personal and professional services,¹⁴ trade, financial and real estate services, government and transportation and communications). In 1996, for every 10 working women in Canada and the United States, 8.6 were employed in the service sector; the same year, the ratio in Mexico stood at 7.2 of every 10 working women.

In each the three countries, female employment in the service sector is largely concentrated in the area of social, personal and professional services (above all, in activities related to healthcare and education) and in retail trade. However, there are differences between the countries as regards participation in each of these activities.

With respect to employment in social, personal and professional services, Canada has the highest proportion, with a total of 51.4 percent of female employment in 1996. The United States ranks second with 47.6 percent, followed by Mexico with 38.2 percent. In the case of retail trade, Mexico had a rate of 21.3 percent of female employment in 1996, followed by the United States with 18.8 percent, and then by Canada with a figure of 14 percent for the same year.

Although the proportion of women employed in retail trade is high in the three countries, there are differences in the type of trade establishments where women are concentrated. In the United States, women are mainly employed in formal trade establishments¹⁵ such as eating and drinking places, department stores and grocery stores. In 1996, 60 percent of total female employment in retail trade was concentrated in these establishments. In Mexico, the majority of female employment in retail trade is also in formal establishments. In 1996, 58 percent of female employment in retail trade was formal. However, between 1991 and 1996 there was a substantial increase in the share of women employed in informal trade in moving establishments such as markets and on the streets. During this period the share of women employed in informal trade as a proportion of total female employment in retail trade increased from 20.2 percent to 42 percent.

Mexico also has a large number of women participating in the agriculture and fishing sector (as seen in Graph 8). In 1996, 10.3 percent of Mexican female labor was employed in such activities, while in Canada and the United States these percentages stood at only 2.6 percent and 1.5 percent, respectively.

Graph 8 Distribution of Female Employment by Industrial Sector, 1996
Note:	For Canada, the data includes female workers 15 years and older; for Mexico, includes female workers 12 years and older; for the United States, female workers 16 years and older.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

As regards female employment in the manufacturing sector, Graph 8 shows that Mexico has the highest share, with a 1996 figure of 16.9 percent of total female employment engaged in that sector. The United States follows with 11.2 percent and Canada reports a figure of 9.5 percent for the same year. The higher participation of women in the Mexican manufacturing sector is partially explained by the significant role played by female workers in the in-bond export industries, the "maquiladoras." In 1996, there were 358,145 female workers in the maquiladoras, a figure that amounts to approximately 58 percent of total workers in the maquiladora industry and 18.5 percent of total female labor in manufacturing during that year.

As shown in Graph 9, the structure of female employment within the manufacturing sector in the three countries is characterized by both similarities and differences. All three countries have relatively high shares of female manufacturing employment in the garment, food processing and electrical products and machinery industries. In Canada, these industries accounted for 36.6 percent of total female manufacturing employment in 1996. The proportion of female manufacturing employment in the same industries was 62.9 percent in Mexico and 29.5 percent in the United States in 1996.

Graph 9 Distribution of Female Employment in the Manufacturing Sector in North America, 1996
Note:	For Canada, the data refers to female workers 15 years and older; for Mexico, the data refers to female workers 12 years and older. For the United States, the data refers to female workers 16 years and older. Percentages do not add to 100 due to rounded figures.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Of the industries where female manufacturing workers are concentrated, women constitute the majority of the workforce in one " the garment industry " in all three countries. In Canada, approximately 74 percent of total employment inthis sector was held by female workers; the figures for Mexico and the United States were 66.8 percent and 70.1 percent, respectively for the same year. By contrast, in the food processing and electrical products and machinery industries men hold the majority of jobs.

Graph 9 also shows that in contrast to Mexico, female employment in the manufacturing sector is more diversified in Canada and the United States. In addition to the foregoing activities, the participation of women is also significant in Canada and the United States in the paper, printing and allied industries, in the metal, machinery and transportation equipment industries, and in chemicals and allied industries.¹⁶ In 1996, this group of industries accounted for 48 percent of total female employment in the manufacturing sector in Canada and 51.4 percent in the United States, while in Mexico the figure was 19 percent. Nonetheless, men hold most jobs in these industries. For example, in the United States the share of women in the metal, machinery and transportation equipment industries total employment was 23 percent in 1996; in the same year the figure for Canada was 18 percent and 27.9 percent for Mexico.

Changes in the structure of female employment by sector and industry

In all three countries female employment was characterized by increased participation in the service sector and a corresponding reduction in the manufacturing sector over the period from 1984 to 1996.¹⁷ A similar pattern was also noted in male employment in these countries.

The largest share of total growth in employment for women in each of the countries was in social, personal and in the professional services (particularly services related to healthcare and education) and in the retail trade industry. In Canada, the increase in social, personal and professional services explained 69 percent of the growth in total female employment between 1984 and 1996, while retailing accounted for 9.9 percent of growth. In the same period in the United States, 65.8 percent of the increase in female employment was linked to social, personal and professional services employment, and 13.9 percent to retailing. In Mexico, female employment growth between 1991 and 1996 was mainly the result of an increase in retail trade employment (which explained 25.5 percent of total growth), followed by the growth of employment in social, personal and professional services, which accounted for 21.3 percent of total employment growth. The latter was especially characterized by the growth of female employment in domestic services.

Regarding changes in the structure of employment within the manufacturing sector, all three countries showed a reduction of women’s employment share in activities in which women traditionally have accounted for a high proportion of employment. For example, in Canada, Mexico and the United States, female participation in the garment industry diminished. In Mexico, female participation in the food industry also declined. On the other hand, increases have been reported in industries in which men traditionally have played a predominant role, such as the paper, printing and allied industries. In Canada and the United States, female participation in the chemical and related products and the metallic, machinery and transportation equipment manufacturing industries has also increased. In Mexico, the participation of women in the manufacture of electrical products and machinery also increased between 1991 and 1996.

Female occupational categories

Female occupational categories in the countries of North America are fairly similar; in Canada, Mexico and the United States the occupations most frequently held by women are related to clerical, personal and social services, professional and sales activities. Leading occupations in all three countries involve education (teachers), healthcare (nurses), and posts such as clerks and secretaries, salespersons and service personnel in restaurants and cleaning activities. Despite these broad similarities, there are some notable differences concerning the proportion of women in these occupations in each country.

As shown in Graph 10, Canada and the United States have fairly similar occupational structures or women. In these countries, the main occupations for women (in order of employment share) are those linked to clerical work, professional positions, personal and social services and administrative and managerial positions. In 1996, almost eight of every ten women workers in Canada and the United States were engaged in one of these occupations. With respect to occupations associated with clerical activities, positions such as secretary and accounting assistant were particularly noteworthy, while teachers and nurses account for a large proportion of women’s professional employment. In the case of services, the most frequent occupations were those of waitress, nursing assistant, hairdresser, cosmetologist and cleaning personnel. The most common female managerial occupations were in hotel and restaurant administration.

Graph 10 Distribution of Female Employment by Occupation in North America, 1996
Note:	For Canada, the data refers to female workers 15 years and older. The category “Equipment Operators” includes transportation equipment and cargo machinery operators. Figures may not add to 100 due to the rounded figures.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

Graph 10A Change in the Distribution of Female Employment by Occupation in North America, 1984-1996
Note:	Figures from 1991 and 1996 for Mexico.
Source:	Canada, Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey; Mexico, STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo; United States, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey.

In the United States, almost one of every ten female workers was either a teacher or nurse in 1996; in Canada that same year, 1.6 of every ten women workers was engaged in occupations related to healthcare or education. The largest difference between the female occupational structures of the United States and Canada was that the number of professional women as a proportion of total employment was higher in Canada, at 21.6 percent in 1996, while this figure stood at 17.1 percent in the United States.

In Mexico, the participation of women in occupations related to social and personal services, clerical support and professions such as teaching and nursing is also high. In 1996, these occupations accounted for 44.4 percent of total female employment. However, in comparison with Canada and the United States, the proportion of women workers employed as salespersons, farmers and industrial workers is significantly higher. In 1996, nearly half (49.8 percent) of all female workers in Mexico were in one of these occupations. In Canada and the United States during the same year, the share for the same occupations stood at 17.8 percent and 21.3 percent, respectively.

Changes in the female occupational structure

From 1984 to 1996, professional and managerial occupations increased rapidly in Canada and the United States as a share of female employment. During this period, these occupations accounted for 58.8 percent of total female employment growth in the United States and 67 percent in Canada. In both countries occupations such as teaching, nursing and restaurant administration continued to exhibit high growth rates, although an increase has also been reported in those professions related to mathematics, computer science, engineering and the natural sciences, areas in which male participation has been dominant. In the United States, the share of women in these occupations in total female employment increased from 0.8 percent in 1984 to 1.3 percent in 1996. In Canada, female employment in natural science, engineering and mathematics occupations increased from 1.4 percent to 1.8 percent of total female employment in the same period.

In Mexico, those occupations requiring lower levels of qualifications were subject to the highest growth rates, such as those involving sales, especially in small-scale commerce and the sale of foodstuffs on the streets. Between 1991 and 1996, almost 46 percent of the total growth of female employment was in sales occupations. In comparison to Canada and the United States, the proportion of females employed as industrial workers increased in Mexico. This was mainly a result of employment growth in the maquiladora industry, in which women have a large proportion of total employment. An increase was also reported for professional and managerial occupations; however, the proportion of this occupational group among women workers in Mexico in 1996, at 10.9 percent, is significantly lower than in Canada (35.3 percent) and the United States (30.4 percent).

It should be noted that in Canada and the United States, managerial and professional occupations report increasingly similar levels for both men and women. However, with the exception of teaching, in Mexico these positions are still largely filled by men.

Another change in female employment by occupation in the three countries is the decreasing participation of female workers in clerical occupations. However, this occupationalgroup is still one of the main sources of employment for women, especially in Canada and the United States.

Part-time female employment

In North America, part-time work accounts for a higher proportion of female employment than is the case for men. In 1996, 1.8 million Canadian women were engaged in part-time work, meaning that for every 10 female workers, three were employed in part-time positions. Meanwhile, for men this ratio stood at one part-time worker for every 10 male workers. The same year, the United States had the lowest proportion of part-time female employment, at 2.7 of every 10 women, while the ratio for men stood at one in ten.¹⁸ In Mexico the proportion of part-time female employment is the highest, at 3.9 of every ten women in 1996. A ratio of two of every 10 male workers was reported for the same period. The relatively large proportion of unpaid female employment in Mexico influences the figure for that country, since most unpaid workers work part time. In 1996, 60.6 percent of unpaid women workers had part-time jobs. If these workers are subtracted, the ratio of female part-time employment in Mexico decreases to 3.1 of each ten workers, similar to the Canadian figure.

As shown in Graph 11, between 1990 and 1996, part-time employment for women in Canada grew more quickly (14.4 percent) than full-time employment (3.1 percent). A similar trend was reported in Mexico up until 1995; but the recovery of economic activity that took place in 1996 led to a significant increase in full-time employment, together with a slight decrease in part-time work (Graph 12). In the United States, full-time employment of women grew at a higher rate than part-time employment until 1993. As of 1994, a marked increase in part-time work was noted (Graph 13). This shift is probably explained by the 1994 redesign of the Current Population Survey (CPS), since definition of part-time was changed (See Appendix B).

Graph 11 Canada: Female Part-time and Full-time Employment Growth, 1984-1996
Note:	The data refers to female workers 15 years and older. Part-time employment refers to those workers who work less than 30 hours a week in the main job.
Source:	Statistics Canada, Labour Force Survey

In all three countries, most part-time female employment is characterized as voluntary, for personal reasons such as taking care of family needs or attending school. In Canada, 71.3 percent of part-time female employment was considered voluntary in 1996. During the same year in Mexico, this proportion stood at 93.1 percent, while the corresponding figure in the United States was 86 percent. It is worth pointing out that this situation is not unique to women, since most part-time work among males is also considered voluntary; however the rates reported for men are lower. For example in 1996, the share of voluntary part-time work among men working part-time in Canada stood at 58.8 percent, in the same year the figures for Mexico and the United States were 74.8 and 70.3 percent, respectively.

Graph 12 Mexico: Female Part-time and Full-time Employment Growth, 1991-1995
Note:	The data refers to female workers 12 years and older. Part-time employment refers to those workers who work less than 35 hours a week in the main job.
Source:	STPS/INEGI, Encuesta Nacional de Empleo.

Graph 13 United States: Female Part-time and Full-time Employment Growth, 1984-1996
Note:	The data refers to female workers 16 years and older. Part-time employment refers to those workers who work less than 35 hours a week in the main job.
Source:	Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Population Survey (CPS)

Read more